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• • • A hijab (,, or;: حجاب‎ ḥijāb, pronounced or (dialectal)) is a traditionally worn by some women in the presence of adult males outside of their immediate family, which usually covers the head and chest. The word ḥijāb in the Quran refers not to women's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain. The term can refer to any head, face, or body covering worn by Muslim women that conforms to a certain standard of. Hijab can also be used to refer to the of women from men in the, or it may denote a metaphysical dimension, for example referring to 'the veil which separates man or the world from God'. Most often, it is worn by Muslim women as a symbol of modesty and. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, modesty in the concerns both men's and women's 'gaze, gait, garments, and genitalia.'

The Qur'an instructs Muslim women to dress modestly. Some define this type of modest clothing as covering everything except the face, hands up to wrists, and feet. These guidelines are found in texts of and developed after the revelation of the Qur'an but, according to some, are derived from the verses () referencing hijab in the Qur'an. Some believe that the Qur'an itself does not mandate that women wear hijab.

In the Qur'an, the term 'hijab' refers to a partition or curtain in the literal or metaphorical sense. The verse where it is used literally is commonly understood to refer to the curtain separating visitors to 's house from his wives' lodgings. This had led some to argue that the mandate of the Qur'an to wear hijab applied to the wives of Muhammad, and not women generally.

In recent times, wearing hijab in public has been required by law in Saudi Arabia (for Muslims), Iran and the Indonesian province of. Other countries, both in Europe and in the, have passed laws banning some or all types of hijab in public or in certain types of locales. Women in different parts of the world have also experienced unofficial pressure to wear or not wear hijab in general, or in its certain forms, including physical attacks.

A young woman in wearing a hijab The Quran instructs both Muslim men and women to dress in a modest way, but there is disagreement on how these instructions should be interpreted. The verses relating to dress use the terms khimār (head cover) and jilbāb (a dress or cloak) rather than ḥijāb. In the Quran, there are over 6,000 verses and only about half a dozen refer specifically to the way a woman should dress or walk in public. The clearest verse on the requirement of modest dress is 24:30–31, telling women to draw their khimār over their bosoms. — The word ḥijāb in the Quran refers not to women's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain. Sometimes its use is literal, as in the verse which refers to the screen that separated Muhammad's wives from the visitors to his house (33:53), while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals (42:51), wrongdoers and righteous (7:46, 41:5), believers and unbelievers (17:45), and light from darkness (38:32).

The interpretation of the ḥijāb as separation can be digested in three ways: as a visual barrier, physical barrier, and ethical barrier. The visual barrier has the opportunity to hide something from site which places emphasis on a symbolic boundary (for example, between the Prophet's family and the surrounding community). The physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals such as the female elite. The ethical barrier, is known to make something forbidden such as the 'purity of hearts' in reference to the Prophet's wives and the Muslim men who visit them. Girls wearing the hijab The Arabic word jilbab is translated as 'cloak' in the following passage. Contemporary insist that the jilbab (which is worn over the Kimaar and covers from the head to the toe) worn today is the same garment mentioned in the Qur'an and the hadith; other translators have chosen to use less specific terms: • Narrated: 'I know (about) the Hijab (the order of veiling of women) more than anybody else.

Used to ask me about it. Allah's Apostle became the bridegroom of whom he married at Medina. After the sun had risen high in the sky, the Prophet invited the people to a meal. Allah's Apostle remained sitting and some people remained sitting with him after the other guests had left.

Then Allah's Apostle got up and went away, and I too, followed him till he reached the door of 'Aisha's room. Then he thought that the people must have left the place by then, so he returned and I also returned with him. Behold, the people were still sitting at their places.

So he went back again for the second time, and I went along with him too. When we reached the door of 'Aisha's room, he returned and I also returned with him to see that the people had left.

Thereupon the Prophet hung a curtain between me and him and the Verse regarding the order for (veiling of women) Hijab was revealed.' ,,, • Narrated, Ummul Mu'minin: 'When the verse 'That they should cast their outer garments over their persons' was revealed, the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows hanging down over their heads by wearing outer garments.' Abū Dawud classed this hadith as authentic. • Narrated: 'Aisha used to say: 'When (the Verse): 'They should draw their veils (Khumur) over their necks and bosoms (juyyub),' was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and covered their faces with the cut pieces.' Dress code required by hijab [ ] Traditionalist views [ ].

Women wearing (the term for hijab) in Traditionally, Muslims have recognized many different forms of clothing as satisfying the demands of hijab. Debate focused on how much of the male or female body should be covered. Different scholars adopted different interpretations of the original texts. Detailed scholarly attention has focused on prescribing female dress in conformity with hijab. The four major (,, and ) hold that the entire body of the woman, except her face and hands – though a few clerics [ ] say face, hands – must be covered during prayer and in public settings (see ).

There are those who allow the feet to be uncovered as well as the hands and face. It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body: either modest forms of western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditional, a high-necked, loose robe that covers the arms and legs. A khimār or shaylah, a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face, is also worn in many different styles. Some scholars [ ] encourage covering the face, [ ] while some follow the opinion that it is not obligatory to cover the face and the hands but only mustahab (Highly recommended). [ ] Other scholars [ ] oppose face covering, particularly in the West, where the woman may draw more attention as a result.

These garments are very different in cut from most of the traditional forms of ħijāb, and they are worn worldwide by Muslims. Women wearing the hijab Many Muslim scholars believe that it is a basic requirement of Islamic law that women keep their hair and bodies covered in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members (those close enough to be forbidden to marry—see ). These include the Iraqi Shia (Grand ); the Sunni in Saudi Arabia; and others. According to some interpretations, these requirements extend to non-Muslim women as well. [ ] Some believers [ ] go so far as to specify exactly which areas of the body must be covered. In some cases, this is everything but the eyes, but most require that women cover everything but the face and hands. [ ] In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are not required to wear a ħijāb.

There is not a single agreed age when a woman should begin wearing a ħijāb—but in many Muslim cultures, puberty is the dividing line. A woman in wearing the hijab In private, and in the presence of close relatives ( mahrams), rules on dress relax.

However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife. It has become tradition that Muslims in general, and in particular, believe the Qur'an demands women wear the garments known today as jilbāb and khumūr (the khumūr must be worn underneath the jilbāb). However, Qur'an and commentators translate the Arabic into English words with a general meaning, such as veils, head-coverings and shawls. Argues that verses [ ] teach etiquette for male and female interactions, where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the clothing of Arab women in the 7th century, but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way. Hence he considers head-covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the (law). Alternative views [ ]. Is among Muslim women who alternate between wearing and not wearing the hijab.

Some Muslims take a relativist approach to hijab. They believe that the commandment to maintain modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest or daring in one society might not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve. Along with scriptural arguments, argues that head covering should not be compulsory in Islam because the veil predates the revelation of the Qur'an.

Head-covering was introduced into Arabia long before Muhammad, primarily through Arab contacts with Syria and Iran, where the hijab was a sign of social status. After all, only a woman who need not work in the fields could afford to remain secluded and veiled. Ahmed argues for a more liberal approach to hijab. Among her arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to 'draw their (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them' [ ] and 'guard their private parts.

And drape down khimar over their breasts [when in the presence of unrelated men]', [ ] they urge modesty. The word khimar refers to a piece of cloth that covers the head, or headscarf. While the term 'hijab' was originally anything that was used to conceal, it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house, specifically the headscarf or khimar. Army and police officials wearing hijabs in People were constantly coming in and out of this compound at all hours of the day. When delegations from other tribes came to speak with Prophet Muhammad, they would set up their tents for days at a time inside the open courtyard, just a few feet away from the apartments in which Prophet Muhammad's wives slept.

And new emigrants who arrived in would often stay within the mosque's walls until they could find suitable homes. According to Ahmed: By instituting seclusion Prophet Muhammad was creating a distance between his wives and this thronging community on their doorstep. They argue that the term darabat al-hijab ('taking the veil') was used synonymously and interchangeably with 'becoming Prophet Muhammad's wife', and that during Muhammad's life, no other Muslim woman wore the hijab. Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad's wives, who are revered as 'Mothers of the Believers' in Islam, and states 'there was no tradition of veiling until around 627 ' in the Muslim community. Another interpretation differing from the traditional states that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind men and men lacking physical desire. Contemporary practice [ ].

Wearing a turban The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world. An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim-majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public. The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly- or loosely-fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey. In Saudi Arabia 63% gave preference to the face veil; in Pakistan the niqab, the full-length robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all. Muslim women in northern wearing hijabs The survey found 'no significant difference' in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favored conservative women's dress. However, women more strongly support women's right to choose how to dress. People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia.

Some fashion-conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans. While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed. A Muslim woman in wearing a There are several types of veils which cover the face in part or in full. The burqa (also spelled burka) is a garment that covers the entire body, including the face. It is commonly associated with the, whose face-veiling portion is typically a piece of netting that obscures the eyes but allows the wearer to see out.

The is a term which is often incorrectly used interchangeably with burqa. It properly refers to a garment that covers a woman's upper body and face, except for her eyes. It is particularly associated with the style traditionally worn in the, where the veil is attached by one side and covers the face only below the eyes, thereby allowing the eyes to be seen.

Only a minority of Islamic scholars believe that covering the face is mandatory, and the use of niqab beyond its traditional geographic strongholds has been a subject of political controversy. In a 2014 survey of men and women in seven Muslim-majority countries, the Afghan burqa was the preferred form of woman's dress for 11% of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 4% in Iraq, 3% in Pakistan, 2% in Lebanon, and 1% or less in Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey. The niqab face veil was the preferred option for 63% of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 32% in Pakistan, 9% in Egypt, 8% in Iraq, and 2% or less in Lebanon, Tunisia, and Turkey. History [ ] Pre-Islamic veiling practices [ ].

Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 2nd–3rd century BC. Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses precede all major Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), dating back as far as 2500 BCE. Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status.

In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society. Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so.

Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to 'differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available'. Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 B.C.E, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men. Pre-Islamic relief showing veiled Arab women,, Palmyra, Syria, 1st century CE. It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling, but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty ( ). Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period, and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non-Jewish counterparts in the Greco-Roman and later in the Babylonian society.

According to rabbinical precepts, married Jewish women have to cover their hair, although the surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices. According to, at the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling their head and face. Roman statue of a There is archeological evidence suggesting that early Christian women in Rome covered their heads.

Writings of indicate that a number of different customs of dress were associated with different cults to which early Christians belonged around 200 CE. The best known early Christian view on veiling is the passage in 1 Corinithians (11:4-7), which states that 'every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head'.

This view may have been influenced by Roman pagan customs, such as the head covering worn by the priestesses of (), rather than Jewish practices. In turn, the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature have been influenced by ancient Persian traditions, and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice. Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East. Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses. In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face. Argues that 'Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam.' Ahmed interprets veiling and segregation of sexes as an expression of a misogynistic view of shamefulness of sex which focused most intensely on shamefulness of the female body and danger of seeing it exposed.

During Muhammad's lifetime [ ] Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad, but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighboring countries such as Syria and Palestine. Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated with high social status. In the early Islamic texts, term hijab does not distinguish between veiling and seclusion, and can mean either 'veil' or 'curtain'.

The only verses in the Qur'an that specifically reference women’s clothing are those promoting modesty, instructing women to guard their private parts and throw a scarf over their heads to their bosoms in the presence of men. The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the 'verse of the hijab' descended upon the community in 627 CE. Now documented in Sura 33:53, the verse states, 'And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts'. This verse, however, was not addressed to women in general, but exclusively to Muhammad's wives. As Muhammad's influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home.

Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives' apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers. During Muhammad's lifetime the term for donning the veil, darabat al-hijab, was used interchangeably with 'being Muhammad's wife'. Later pre-modern history [ ]. Young woman from in a hijab (c.

1867-1885) The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the of those empires. Reza Aslan argues that 'The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms'. Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety. Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East.

Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities. Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields.

Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, 'a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle.' By the 19th century, upper-class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa ( cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth). The name of this garment, harabah, derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary, which may indicate the origins of the garment itself. Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form of niqab when they visited urban areas, 'as a sign of civilization'. Modern history [ ].

A model displaying a fashionable hijab at 'Moslema In Style Fashion Show' (show for Muslim women apparels) in,. Western clothing largely dominated in Muslim countries the 1960s and 1970s. For example, in, Afghanistan and Iran, many liberal women wore short skirts, flower printed dresses, flared trousers, and went out in public without the hijab. This changed following the, military dictatorship in Pakistan, and of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including the, and made a comeback. There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979, after the hijab law was brought in, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house.

Gamal Abdel Nasser laughing at the Muslim Brotherhood for suggesting in 1953 that women should be required to wear the hijab. In 1953 Egyptian leader President was told by the leader of the that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, 'Sir, I know you have a daughter in college - and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarf? So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it?'

The late-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in after a long period of decline as a result of the westernization of Egypt. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith. This movement was named the, or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code. The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an 'al-—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover resembling a nun's that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back'. In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (al-) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin. Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice.

Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women’s equality, many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing.

It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs.

Medalists from Spain, Britain, Iran and Egypt at Rio Olympics, 2016 Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights. There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it. Many instances, such as a period of forced veiling for women in Iran, brought these issues to the forefront and generated great debate from both scholars and everyday people. As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty and Islamic identity towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Islamic nationalism and to resist western influences. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice.

They choose to cover because they believe it is liberating and allows them to avoid harassment. Many people (both Muslim and non-Muslim) are against the wearing of the hijab and argue that the hijab causes issues with gender relations, works to silence and repress women both physically and metaphorically, and have many other problems with the practice.

This difference in opinions has generated a plethora of discussion on the subject, both emotional and academic, which continues today. Ever since September 11, 2001, the discussion and discourse on the hijab has intensified. Many nations have attempted to put restrictions on the hijab, which has led to a new wave of rebellion by women who instead turn to covering and wearing the hijab in even greater numbers. Compulsion and pressure [ ]. Further information: Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing hijab, including physical attacks. Legal enforcement [ ] The requires Muslim women to cover their hair and all women have to wear a full-body garment.

Saudi women commonly wear the traditional robe, while foreigners sometimes opt for a long coat. These regulations are enforced by the and vigilantes. In 2002 the Saudi religious police were accused by Saudi and international press of hindering the rescue of schoolgirls from a fire because they were not wearing hijab, which resulted in 15 deaths. Went from in 1936 to restoring original dress code between 1980 and 1984. Practical decisions started with the Iranian Cultural Revolution in April 1980, when it was decided that women in government offices and educational institutions would observe the veil. The 1983 penal code prescribed punishment of 74 lashes for women appearing in public without Islamic hijab ( hijab shar'ee), leaving the definition of proper hijab ambiguous.

The same period witnessed tensions around the definition of proper hijab, which sometimes resulted in vigilante harassment of women who were perceived to wear improper clothing. The government felt obliged to address this situation, and in 1984 Tehran’s public prosecutor announced that a stricter dress-code should observed in public establishments, while clothing in other places should correspond to standards observed by the majority of the people. A new regulation issued in 1988 by the Ministry of the Interior based on the 1983 law further specified what constituted violations of hijab.

Iran's current penal code stipulates a fine or 10 days to two months in prison as punishment for failure to observe hijab in public, without specifying its form. The dress code has been subject of alternating periods of relatively strict and relaxed enforcement over the years, with many women pushing its boundaries, and its compulsory aspect has been a point of contention between conservatives and the current president. In governmental and religious institutions, the dress code requires khimar-type headscarf and overcoat, while in other public places women commonly wear a loosely tied headscarf (rousari).

[ ] endorses and officially promotes stricter types of veiling, praising it by invoking both Islamic religious principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture. The Indonesian province of requires Muslim women to wear hijab in public.

Indonesia's central government granted Aceh's religious leaders the right to impose in 2001, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province. Legal bans [ ] The tradition of veiling hair in Iranian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins, but the widespread custom was forcibly ended by 's regime in 1936, as he claimed hijab to be incompatible with his modernizing ambitions and ordered 'unveiling' act. The police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it, and these policies outraged the clerics, and ordinary men and women, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness.

Many women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police. In 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned. Turkey, Tunisia, and Tajikistan are Muslim-majority countries where the law prohibits or recently prohibited the wearing of hijab in government buildings, schools, and universities. In Tunisia, women were banned from wearing hijab in state offices in 1981 and in the 1980s and 1990s more restrictions were put in place. In 2008 the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court. In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities, government buildings and schools. On March 15, 2004, France passed a banning 'symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation' in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools.

In the city of, the has been banned since 2006. On July 13, 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. There were 335 votes for the bill and one against in the 557-seat National Assembly. In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of the, a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab. Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing 'an outfit respecting good morals and secularism', and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police. Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini.

Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice. The Nice mayor's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the 'unacceptable provocation' of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the. In October 2017, wearing a face veil became illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress. Psychologists in Belgium investigated whether the Western majority's discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the public sphere, is motivated by the defense of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia/ethnic prejudice and by antireligious sentiments. Consistently across two studies, it was found that hostility toward the veil was predicted by (a) xenophobia/subtle ethnic prejudice as well as by (b) general antireligious sentiments (jointly or independently) and not by the defense of the liberal values of autonomy and equality.

Unofficial pressure to wear hijab [ ]. See also: Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear hijab has been reported in where Mujama' al-Islami, the predecessor of, reportedly used 'a mixture of consent and coercion' to 'restore' hijab' on urban educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s. Similar behaviour was displayed by Hamas itself during the in Palestine. Though a relatively small movement at this time, Hamas exploited the political vacuum left by perceived failures in strategy by the Palestinian factions to call for a 'return' to Islam as a path to success, a campaign that focused on the role of women. Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures, including insisting women stay at home, segregation from men and the promotion of.

In the course of this campaign women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed, with the result that the hijab was being worn 'just to avoid problems on the streets'. Wearing of the hijab was enforced by the regime in. The Taliban required women to cover not only their head but their face as well, because 'the face of a woman is a source of corruption' for men not related to them.

In, the capital of Indian-administered Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itself Lashkar-e-Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region. In 2006, radicals in Gaza have been accused of attacking or threatening to attack the faces of women in an effort to intimidate them from wearing allegedly immodest dress.

In 2014 the was reported to have executed several women for not wearing niqab with gloves. Unofficial pressure against wearing hijab [ ] After the initial 1936 ban on hijab in Iran, the rules of dress code were relaxed, and after Reza Shah's abdication in 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned. According to, between 1941 and 1979, wearing hijab was no longer offensive, but still considered it to be a real hindrance to climbing the, a badge of backwardness and a marker of class. A, let alone the chador, prejudiced the chances of advancement in work and society not only of working women but also of men, who were increasingly expected to appear with their wives at social functions.

[ ] In recent years, women wearing hijab have been subject of verbal and physical attacks in Western countries, particularly following terrorist attacks. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend. Some women stop wearing hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction even when they are urged to do so for self-protection. Has no official ban on wearing hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them. In 2015 authorities in organized a 'deveiling' campaign in the capital city, during which women wearing hijab were detained and taken to a police station.

Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released 'after a conversation', while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police.

This followed an earlier campaign in the. In 2016 in the government has sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab. World Hijab Day [ ] is an annual event that takes place on February 1. The first World Hijab Day was celebrated in 2013. Founded by, it is a worldwide event that encourages Muslim and non-Muslim women to wear the hijab to experience the life of a hijabi woman. See also [ ].